The Integrative and Conjugative Element ICECspPOL2 Contributes to the Outbreak of Multi-Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria for Chryseobacterium Spp. and Elizabethkingia Spp.

Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and horizontal transfer of ARGs among bacterial species in the environment can have serious clinical implications as such transfers can lead to disease outbreaks from multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria. Infections due to antibiotic-resistant Chryseobacterium and Elizabethkingia in intensive care units have been increasing in recent years. In this study, the multi-antibiotic-resistant strain Chryseobacterium sp. POL2 was isolated from the wastewater of a livestock farm. Whole-genome sequencing and annotation revealed that the POL2 genome encodes dozens of ARGs. The integrative and conjugative element (ICE) ICECspPOL2, which encodes ARGs associated with four types of antibiotics, including carbapenem, was identified in the POL2 genome, and phylogenetic affiliation analysis suggested that ICECspPOL2 evolved from related ICEEas of Elizabethkingia spp. Conjugation assays verified that ICECspPOL2 can horizontally transfer to Elizabethkingia species, suggesting that ICECspPOL2 contributes to the dissemination of multiple ARGs among Chryseobacterium spp. and Elizabethkingia spp. Because Elizabethkingia spp. is associated with clinically significant infections and high mortality, there would be challenges to clinical treatment if these bacteria acquire ICECspPOL2 with its multiple ARGs, especially the carbapenem resistance gene. Therefore, the results of this study support the need for monitoring the dissemination of this type of ICE in Chryseobacterium and Elizabethkingia strains to prevent further outbreaks of MDR bacteria. IMPORTANCE Infections with multiple antibiotic-resistant Chryseobacterium and Elizabethkingia in intensive care units have been increasing in recent years. In this study, the mobile integrative and conjugative element ICECspPOL2, which was associated with the transmission of a carbapenem resistance gene, was identified in the genome of the multi-antibiotic-resistant strain Chryseobacterium sp. POL2. ICECspPOL2 is closely related to the ICEEas from Elizabethkingia species, and ICECspPOL2 can horizontally transfer to Elizabethkingia species with the tRNA-Glu-TTC gene as the insertion site. Because Elizabethkingia species are associated with clinically significant infections and high mortality, the ability of ICECspPOL2 to transfer carbapenem resistance from environmental strains of Chryseobacterium to Elizabethkingia is of clinical concern.

Chryseobacterium lecithinasegens sp. nov., a siderophore-producing bacterium isolated from soil at the bottom of a pond.

Bacterial strain PAGU 2197T, which was isolated from soil collected from the bottom of a pond in Japan, is characterized in this study. Cells of strain PAGU 2197T were aerobic, Gram-negative, short rod-shaped, non-motile, flexirubin-producing, oxidase-positive, catalase-positive and lecithinase-negative. A phylogenetic study based on 16S rRNA gene sequences and multilocus sequence analysis (gyrB, rpoB and rpoD) indicated that strain PAGU 2197T belongs to the genus Chryseobacterium and is a member of an independent lineage including Chryseobacterium tructae CCUG 60111T (sequence similarity, 95.9 %), Chryseobacterium lactis CCUG 60566T (93.4 %) and Chryseobacterium viscerum CCUG 60103T (91.6 %). The average nucleotide identity values were 80.83-85.04 %. Because average nucleotide identity values of 95-96 % exceed the 70 % DNA-DNA hybridization cutoff value for species discrimination, strain PAGU 2197T represents a novel species in the genus Chryseobacterium. The genome of strain PAGU 2197T was 4 967 738 bp with a G+C content of 35.5 mol%. The sole respiratory quinone of strain PAGU 2197T was MK-6; the major cellular fatty acids were iso-C15 : 0, iso-C17 : 0 3OH, summed feature 3 (C16 : 1 ω7c and/or C16 : 1 ω6c) and summed feature 9 (iso-C17 : 1 ω9c and/or C16 : 0 10-methyl); and the major polar lipids were phosphoglycolipids and phosphatidylethanolamine. These results indicate that strain PAGU 2197T should be classified as representing a novel species in the genus Chryseobacterium, for which the name Chryseobacterium lecithinasegens sp. nov. is proposed, with strain PAGU 2197T (=NBRC 114264T=CCUG 75150T) as the type strain.

Chryseobacterium panacisoli sp. nov., isolated from ginseng-cultivation soil with ginsenoside-converting activity.

A Gram-stain-negative, non-motile, non-spore-forming, aerobic, rod-shaped and yellow-pigmented bacterium, designated strain Gsoil 183T, was isolated from ginseng-cultivation soil sampled in Pocheon Province, Republic of Korea. This bacterium was characterized to determine its taxonomic position by using a polyphasic approach. Strain Gsoil 183T grew at 10-37 °C and at pH 5.0-9.0 on tryptic soy agar. Strain Gsoil 183T had ß-glucosidase activity, which was responsible for its ability to convert ginsenoside Rb1 (one of the dominant active components of ginseng) to F2. Based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing, strain Gsoil 183T clustered with species of the genus Chryseobacterium and appeared to be closely related to Chryseobacterium sediminis LMG 28695T (99.1 % sequence similarity), Chryseobacterium lactis NCTC 11390T (98.6%), Chryseobacterium rhizoplanae LMG 28481T (98.6%), Chryseobacterium oncorhynchi CCUG 60105T (98.5%), Chryseobacterium viscerum CCUG 60103T (98.4%) and Chryseobacterium joostei DSM 16927T (98.3%). Menaquinone MK-6 was the predominant respiratory quinone and the major fatty acids were iso-C15 : 0, iso-C17 : 0-3OH and summed feature 3 (C16 : 1 ω6c and/or C16 : 1 ω7c). The polar lipids were phosphatidylethanolamine, six unidentified glycolipids, five unidentified aminolipids and three unidentified lipids. The G+C content of the genomic DNA was 36.6 mol%. Digital DNA-DNA hybridization between strain Gsoil 183T and the type strains of C. sediminis, C. lactis, C. rhizoplanae, C. oncorhynchi, C. viscerum and C. joostei resulted in values below 70 %. Strain Gsoil 183T could be differentiated genotypically and phenotypically from the recognized species of the genus Chryseobacterium. The isolate therefore represents a novel species, for which the name Chryseobacterium panacisoli sp. nov. is proposed, with the type strain Gsoil 183T (=KACC 15033T=LMG 23397T).

Chryseobacterium endalhagicum sp. nov., isolated from seed of leguminous plant.

A Gram-stain-negative, yellow-pigmented bacterium, designated as L7T, was isolated from seeds of Alhagi sparsifolia Shap., a leguminous plant that grows in northwest PR China. Strain L7T was found to be non-flagellated, non-spore forming rods which can grow at 10-37 °C, pH 6.0-8.5 and in 0-3 % (v/w) NaCl concentration. The 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis showed that strain L7T belongs to the genus Chryseobacterium with sequence similarities to Chryseobacterium vietnamense GIMN1.005T (98.1%), C. bernardetii NCCTC13530T (98.0%), C. vrystaatense LMG 22846T (97.9%), C. nakagawai NCTC13529T (97.7%), C. shigense DSM 17126T (97.6%) and C. rhizosphaerae RSB3-1T (97.5%). The average nucleotide identity of strain L7T to 31 reference strains were 78.6-85.6 %, lower than the species delineation threshold of 95 %. MK-6 was the only respiratory quinone of L7T and major fatty acids were iso-C15 : 0, iso-C17 : 0 3-OH, C16 : 1 ω7c and/or C16 : 1 ω6c, isoC17 : 1 ω9c and/or C16 : 0 10-methyl. The major polar lipids were phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylglycerol, three unidentified aminophospholipids, two unidentified aminolipids, three unidentified glycolipids and two unidentified lipids. The G+C content of the genome was 38.58 mol%. On the basis of polyphasic taxonomy analyses in this study, strain L7T is considered to represent a novel species in the genus Chryseobacterium, for which the name Chryseobacterium endalhagicum sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is L7T (=MCCC 1K05687T=JCM 34506T).

Chryseobacterium caseinilyticum sp. nov., a casein hydrolyzing bacterium isolated from rice plant and emended description of Chryseobacterium piscicola.

A novel Gram-stain-negative, aerobic, asporogenous, catalase-positive and oxidase-negative, non-motile, golden-yellow pigmented, rod-shaped bacterium with casein-degrading ability, designated strain GCR10T, was isolated from roots of rice plants collected from a paddy field near Dongguk University, Republic of Korea. The results of subsequent 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis indicated that GCR10T shares the highest sequence identity with Chryseobacterium piscicola VQ-6316sT (98.3%). Strain GCR10T grew at 2-32 °C (optimum, 25 °C), at pH 6.0-8.0 (optimum, pH 7.0) and in the presence of 0-2.0% (w/v) NaCl (optimum in the absence of NaCl). The novel strain was able to produce carotenoid and flexirubin-type pigments. The predominant menaquinone was MK-6 and the major fatty acids were identified as iso-C15 : 0, iso-C17 : 0 3-OH and iso-C17 : 1ω9c. The polar lipids were phosphatidylethanolamine, four unidentified aminoglycolipids, two unidentified aminolipids and two unidentified glycolipids. The genome of GCR10T is 4.3 Mb in length with a DNA G+C content of 36.5 mol%. Average nucleotide identity, digital DNA-DNA hybridization and average amino acid identity values between GCR10T and Chryseobacterium piscicola VQ-6316sT were 82.1, 25.2 and 84.3 %, respectively, which clearly indicates that the novel strain is distinct from its closest relative. The demand for natural biodegradable pigments isolated frominsects, plants or microorganisms is increasing day by day because of their beneficial pharmacological properties. Here, we describe a novel strain that produces two types of pigment, carotenoid and flexirubin. On the basis of the results from phenotypic, genotypic and chemotaxonomic analyses, strain GCR10T represents a novel species of the genus Chryseobacterium, and the name Chryseobacterium caseinilyticum sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is GCR10T (=KACC 21707T=NBRC 114715T).

Chryseobacterium pennae sp. nov., isolated from poultry feather waste.

A Gram-stain-negative, rod-shaped, non-motile, non-spore-forming, aerobic, yellow-pigmented bacterium was isolated from chicken feather waste collected from an abattoir in Bloemfontein, South Africa. A polyphasic taxonomy study was used to describe and name the bacterial isolate, strain 1_F178T. The 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis and sequence comparison data indicated that strain 1_F178T was a member of the genus Chryseobacterium and was closely related to Chryseobacterium jejuense (99.1%) and Chryseobacterium nakagawai (98.7%). Overall genome similarity metrics (average nucleotide identity, digital DNA-DNA hybridization and average amino acid identity) revealed greatest similarity to the C. jejuense and C. nakagawai type strains but were below the threshold for species delineation. Genome sequencing revealed a genome size of 6.18 Mbp and a G+C content of 35.6 mol%. The major respiratory quinone and most abundant polar lipid of strain 1_F178T were menaquinone-6 and phosphatidylethanolamine, respectively. Strain 1_F178T had a typical fatty acid composition for Chryseobacterium species. On the basis of physiological, genotypic, phylogenetic and chemotaxonomic data, strain 1_F178T constitutes a novel species of Chryseobacterium, for which the name Chryseobacterium pennae sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is 1_F178T (=LMG 30779T=KCTC 62759T).

Chryseobacterium cheonjiense sp. nov., isolated from forest soil.

A yellow-pigmented, non-motile and rod-shaped bacterium, designated RJ-7-14T was obtained from forest soil sampled at Cheonji-dong, Seogwipo-si, Jeju-do, South Korea. Cells were Gram-stain-negative and produced flexirubin type pigments. A phylogenetic analysis based on its 16S rRNA gene sequence revealed that strain RJ-7-14T formed a lineage within the family Weeksellaceae and clustered as members of the genus Chryseobacterium. The closest members were Chryseobacterium geocarposphaerae DSM 27617T (98.2% sequence similarity), Chryseobacterium hispalense DSM 25574T (98.0%) and Chryseobacterium nepalense KACC 18907T (98.0%). The sequence similarity for other members was < 98.0%. The genome was 4,276,416 bp long with 9 scaffolds and 3779 protein-coding genes. The sole respiratory quinone was MK-6. The major cellular fatty acids were iso-C15:0, summed feature 9 (iso-C17:1 ω9c and/or C16:0 10-methyl), summed feature 3 (iso-C15:0 2-OH and/or C16: 1ω7c) and iso-C17:0 3-OH. The major polar lipid was phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). The DNA G + C content of the type strain was 37.2 mol%. In addition, the average nucleotide identity (ANIu) and in silico DNA-DNA hybridization (dDDH) relatedness values between strain RJ-7-14T and phylogenetically closest members were ≤ 88.2% and ≤ 35.0%, respectively, which were below the threshold values of 95-96% (for ANI) and 70% (for dDDH), suggesting the allocation of novel strain to a new species. Based on genomic, chemotaxonomic, phenotypic and phylogenetic analyses, strain RJ-7-14T represents novel species in the genus Chryseobacterium, for which the name Chryseobacterium cheonjiense sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is RJ-7-14T (= KACC 21625T = NBRC 114362T).

Chryseobacterium antibioticum sp. nov. with antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative bacteria, isolated from Arctic soil.

A yellow-pigmented, non-motile, Gram-stain-negative, pleomorphic bacterium, designated RP-3-3T was obtained from soil sampled at the Arctic region in Cambridge Bay, NU, Canada. The strain is strictly aerobic, psychrotolerant, grow optimally at 15-20 °C and produces flexirubin type pigments. The strain is able to hydrolyse CM-cellulose, casein, starch and DNA. Strain RP-3-3T showed antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative pathogens. A phylogenetic analysis based on its 16S rRNA gene sequence revealed that strain RP-3-3T formed a lineage within the family Weeksellaceae and clustered as members of the genus Chryseobacterium. The closest members were Chryseobacterium shigense DSM 17126T (98.7% sequence similarity), Chryseobacterium carnipullorum DSM 25581T (98.7%) and Chryseobacterium oncorhychi 701B-08T (98%). The genome is 4,910,468 bp long with 73 scaffolds and 4300 protein-coding genes. The anti-SMASH analysis of whole genome showed ten putative biosynthetic gene clusters responsible for various secondary metabolites. The sole respiratory quinone is MK-6. The major cellular fatty acids are iso-C15:0, iso-C17:1 ω9c, iso-C17:0 3-OH, summed feature 3 (iso-C15 :0 2-OH/C16 :1ω7c) and anteiso-C15:0. The major polar lipid is phosphatidylethanolamine. The DNA G + C content of the type strain is 36.9 mol%. In addition, the average nucleotide identity and in silico DNA-DNA hybridization  relatedness values between strain RP-3-3T and phylogenetically closest members are below the threshold value for species delineation. Based on genomic, chemotaxonomic, phenotypic and phylogenetic analyses, strain RP-3-3T represents novel species in the genus Chryseobacterium, for which the name Chryseobacterium antibioticum sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is RP-3-3T (=KACC 21620T = NBRC 114360T).

Division of the genus Chryseobacterium: Observation of discontinuities in amino acid identity values, a possible consequence of major extinction events, guides transfer of nine species to the genus Epilithonimonas, eleven species to the genus Kaistella, and three species to the genus Halpernia gen. nov., with description of Kaistella daneshvariae sp. nov. and Epilithonimonas vandammei sp. nov. derived from clinical specimens.

The genus Chryseobacterium in the family Weeksellaceae is known to be polyphyletic. Amino acid identity (AAI) values were calculated from whole-genome sequences of species of the genus Chryseobacterium, and their distribution was found to be multi-modal. These naturally-occurring non-continuities were leveraged to standardise genus assignment of these species. We speculate that this multi-modal distribution is a consequence of loss of biodiversity during major extinction events, leading to the concept that a bacterial genus corresponds to a set of species that diversified since the Permian extinction. Transfer of nine species (Chryseobacterium arachidiradicis, Chryseobacterium bovis, Chryseobacterium caeni, Chryseobacterium hispanicum, Chryseobacterium hominis, Chryseobacterium hungaricum,, Chryseobacterium pallidum and Chryseobacterium zeae) to the genus Epilithonimonas and eleven (Chryseobacterium anthropi, Chryseobacterium antarcticum, Chryseobacterium carnis, Chryseobacterium chaponense, Chryseobacterium haifense, Chryseobacterium jeonii, Chryseobacterium montanum, Chryseobacterium palustre, Chryseobacterium solincola, Chryseobacterium treverense and Chryseobacterium yonginense) to the genus Kaistella is proposed. Two novel species are described: Kaistella daneshvariae sp. nov. and Epilithonimonas vandammei sp. nov. Evidence is presented to support the assignment of Planobacterium taklimakanense to a genus apart from Chryseobacterium, to which Planobacterium salipaludis comb nov. also belongs. The novel genus Halpernia is proposed, to contain the type species Halpernia frigidisoli comb. nov., along with Halpernia humi comb. nov., and Halpernia marina comb. nov.

Chryseobacterium vaccae sp. nov., isolated from raw cow's milk.

Strain CA7T, a Gram-stain-negative, non-motile, non-spore-forming, aerobic and rod-shaped bacterial strain, was isolated from raw cow's milk collected from a farm affiliated with Chung-Ang University, Anseong, Korea, and characterized by a polyphasic approach. Optimal growth of strain CA7T was observed on tryptic soy agar at 30 °C and pH 7.0 with 0 % NaCl. Phylogenetic analysis based on the 16S rRNA gene sequence revealed that strain CA7T belonged to the genus Chryseobacterium. The most closely related strains (16S rRNA gene sequence similarity indicated in parentheses), based on the phylogenetic analysis, were Chryseobacterium rhizosphaerae KCTC 22548T (98.08 %), Chryseobacterium nakagawai CCUG 60563T (98.61 %), Chryseobacterium jejuense KACC 12501T (97.85 %) and Chryseobacterium aurantiacum KCTC 62135T (97.78 %). Whole genome sequencing indicated that the genome size was 5 125 723 bp and had a DNA G+C content of 37.4 mol%. Average nucleotide identity values for strain CA7T with C. rhizosphaerae, C. nakagawai, C. jejuense, C. aurantiacum, and the type species of the genus Chryseobacterium, C. gleum, were 80.2, 79.8, 79.8, 79.6 and 80.4 %, respectively. The digital DNA-DNA hybridization values of CA7T compared to C. rhizosphaerae, C. nakagawai, C. jejuense, C. aurantiacum and C. gleum were 24.1, 23.9, 23.9, 23.7 and 24.3 %, respectively. The major fatty acids were iso-C15 : 0, summed feature 9 (iso-C17 : 1 ω9c and/or C16 : 0 10-methyl), iso-C17 : 0 3-OH and summed feature 3 (iso-C15 : 0 2-OH and/or C16 : 1 ω7c). Menaquinone-6 was the only respiratory quinone. The major polar lipid was phosphatidylethanolamine. Based on this polyphasic taxonomic study, strain CA7T represents a novel species of the genus Chryseobacterium for which the name Chryseobacterium vaccae sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is CA7T (=KACC 21402T=JCM 33749T).

Chryseobacterium salivictor sp. nov., a plant-growth-promoting bacterium isolated from freshwater.

A Gram-stain-negative, non-motile, rod-shaped bacterial strain, designated NBC 122T, was isolated from freshwater of the Nakdong River Republic of Korea. Growth occurred at pH 5.0-8.0 (optimum, pH 7.0), at 4-37 °C (optimum, 25 °C), and with 0-3.5% (w/v) NaCl (optimum, 1%). Phylogenetic analyses based on 16S rRNA gene sequences showed that strain NBC 122T belongs to the genus Chryseobacterium and is most closely related to Chryseobacterium antarcticum AT1013T (97.85%). The average nucleotide identity and in silico DNA-DNA hybridization (DDH) values between strain NBC 122T and related Chryseobacterium species were 77.77-80.28 and 20.9-23.2%, respectively. The strain NBC 122T contained MK-6 as the major respiratory quinone. The major fatty acids included anteiso C15:0, iso C15:0, summed feature 9 (C17:1 iso ω9c, C16:0 10-methyl) and iso C17:0 3-OH, and the polar lipids were phosphatidylethanolamine, five unidentified aminolipids and six unidentified lipids. The DNA G + C content was 37.5 mol%. On the basis of a 16S rRNA gene phylogeny and comparative phenotypic analyses, strain NBC 122T represents a novel species in the genus Chryseobacterium, for which the name Chryseobacterium salivictor sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is NBC122T (= KCTC 72248T = JCM 33980T).

Chryseobacterium candidae sp. nov., isolated from a yeast (Candida tropicalis).

A Gram-stain-negative, rod shaped, non-motile, aerobic bacterium (strain JC507T) was isolated from a yeast (Candida tropicalis JY101). Strain JC507T was oxidase- and catalase-positive. Complete 16S rRNA gene sequence comparison data indicated that strain JC507T was a member of the genus Chryseobacterium and was closely related to Chryseobacterium indologenes NBRC 14944T (98.7 %), followed by Chryseobacterium arthrosphaerae CC-VM-7T (98.6 %), Chryseobacterium gleum ATCC 35910T (98.5 %) and less than 98.5 % to other species of the genus Chryseobacterium.The genomic DNA G+C content of strain JC507T was 36.0 mol%. Strain JC507T had phosphatidylethanolamine, four unidentified amino lipids and four unidentified lipids. MK-6 was the only respiratory quinone. The major fatty acids (>10 %) were anteiso-C11 : 0, iso-C15 : 0 and iso-C17 : 03OH. The average nucleotide identity and in silico DNA-DNA hybridization values between strain JC507T and C. indologenes NBRC 14944T, C. arthrosphaerae CC-VM-7T and C. gleum ATCC 35910T were 80.2, 83.0 and 87.0 % and 24, 26.7 and 32.7 %, respectively. The results of phenotypic, phylogenetic and chemotaxonomic analyses support the inclusion of strain JC507T as a representative of a new species of the genus Chryseobacterium, for which the name Chryseobacteriumcandidae sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is JC507T (=KCTC 52928T=MCC 4072T=NBRC 113872T).

Chryseobacterium binzhouense sp. nov., isolated from activated sludge.

A golden-pigmented, Gram-strain-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped, non-flagellated and non-gliding bacterium, designated strain lm2T, was isolated from activated sludge obtained from a wastewater treatment plant in Binzhou (Shandong province, PR China). Growth occurred at 15-45°C (optimum, 30 °C), in the presence of 0-5.0 % (w/v) NaCl (optimum, 0-2.0 %) and at pH 6.5-8.0 (optimum, pH 7.0-7.5). The chemotaxonomic, phenotypic and genomic traits were investigated. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequence showed that strain lm2T belonged to the genus Chryseobacterium, with highest sequence similarity to Chryseobacterium echinoideorum CC-CZW010T (97.1 %). Genome sequencing revealed a genome size of 3 611 894 bp and a G+C content of 34.9 mol%. The average nucleotide identity value and the digital DNA-DNA hybridization (dDDH) value between strain lm2T and C. echinoideorum JCM 30470T were 87.8 and 34.7 %, respectively. The major respiratory quinone was Menaquinone-6 (MK-6). The major fatty acids were iso-C15 : 0, iso-C17 : 0 3-OH and iso-C17 : 1 ω9c and its polar lipids consisted of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), unidentified lipids (L1-5) and unidentified aminolipids (AL1-4). On the basis of these data, strain lm2T is considered to represent a novel species of the genus Chryseobacterium, for which the name Chryseobacterium binzhouense sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is lm2T (=KCTC 72529T=CCTCC AB2019126T).

Chryseobacterium mulctrae sp. nov., isolated from raw cow's milk.

A Gram-stain-negative bacterial strain, designated CA10T, was isolated from bovine raw milk sampled in Anseong, Republic of Korea. Cells were yellow-pigmented, aerobic, non-motile bacilli and grew optimally at 30 °C and pH 7.0 on tryptic soy agar without supplementation of NaCl. Phylogenetic analysis based on the 16S rRNA gene sequences revealed that strain CA10T belonged to the genus Chryseobacterium, family Flavobacteriaceae, and was most closely related to Chryseobacterium indoltheticum ATCC 27950T (98.75 % similarity). The average nucleotide identity and digital DNA-DNA hybridization values of strain CA10T were 94.4 and 56.9 %, respectively, relative to Chryseobacterium scophthalmum DSM 16779T, being lower than the cut-off values of 95-96 and 70 %, respectively. The predominant respiratory quinone was menaquinone-6; major polar lipid, phosphatidylethanolamine; major fatty acids, iso-C15 : 0, summed feature 9 (iso-C17 : 1ω9c and/or C16 : 0 10-methyl), summed feature 3 (iso-C15 : 0 2-OH and/or C16 : 1ω7c) and iso-C17 : 0 3-OH. The results of physiological, chemotaxonomic and biochemical analyses suggested that strain CA10T is a novel species of genus Chryseobacterium, for which the name Chryseobacterium mulctrae sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is CA10T (=KACC 21234T=JCM 33443T).

Draft genome and description of Chryseobacterium phocaeense sp. nov.: a new bacterial species isolated from the sputum of a cystic fibrosis patient.

Strain 6021061333T was isolated from the sputum of 16-year-old girl with cystic fibrosis following a pulmonary exacerbation. This bacterial strain could not be identified by our systematic MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry screening on a MicroFlex. This led to the sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene, which shows 97.83% sequence identity with Chryseobacterium kwangjuense strain KJ1R5T, the phylogenetic closely related type strain of a species with standing in nomenclature, which putatively classifies it as a new species. Colonies are yellow, circular and 0.5-1 mm in diameter after cultivation at 28 °C for 24 h on 5% sheep blood-enriched Colombia agar. Growth occurs at temperatures in the range of 28-37 °C (optimally at 28 °C). Strain 6021061333T is Gram-negative, non-motile and strictly aerobic bacillus. It is catalase and oxidase positive. The 4,864,678 bp-long genome, composed of five contigs, has a G+C content of 38.86%. Out of the 4427 predicted genes, 4342 were protein-coding genes and 85 were RNAs. The major fatty acids are branched (13-methyl-tetradecanoic acid and 15-methyl-hexadecenoic acid). Digital DNA-DNA hybridization (dDDH) estimation and average nucleotide identity (ANI) of the strain 6021061333T against genomes of the type strains of related species ranged between 23.60 and 50.40% and between 79.31 and 93.06%, respectively. According to our taxonogenomics results, we propose the creation of Chryseobacterium phocaeense sp. nov. that contains the type strain 6021061333T (= CSUR P2660, = CECT 9670).

Metagenomic Insights into the Bacterial Functions of a Diesel-Degrading Consortium for the Rhizoremediation of Diesel-Polluted Soil.

Diesel is a complex pollutant composed of a mixture of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. Because of this complexity, diesel bioremediation requires multiple microorganisms, which harbor the catabolic pathways to degrade the mixture. By enrichment cultivation of rhizospheric soil from a diesel-polluted site, we have isolated a bacterial consortium that can grow aerobically with diesel and different alkanes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) as the sole carbon and energy source. Microbiome diversity analyses based on 16S rRNA gene showed that the diesel-degrading consortium consists of 76 amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) and it is dominated by Pseudomonas, Aquabacterium, Chryseobacterium, and Sphingomonadaceae. Changes in microbiome composition were observed when growing on specific hydrocarbons, reflecting that different populations degrade different hydrocarbons. Shotgun metagenome sequence analysis of the consortium growing on diesel has identified redundant genes encoding enzymes implicated in the initial oxidation of alkanes (AlkB, LadA, CYP450) and a variety of hydroxylating and ring-cleavage dioxygenases involved in aromatic and polyaromatic hydrocarbon degradation. The phylogenetic assignment of these enzymes to specific genera allowed us to model the role of specific populations in the diesel-degrading consortium. Rhizoremediation of diesel-polluted soil microcosms using the consortium, resulted in an important enhancement in the reduction of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs), making it suited for rhizoremediation applications.

Chryseobacterium pennipullorum sp. nov., isolated from poultry feather waste.

Strain 7_F195T was previously isolated from chicken feather waste collected from an abattoir in Bloemfontein, South Africa. A polyphasic approach was followed to determine if strain 7_F195T belongs to the genus Chryseobacterium and if the organism can be classified as a new species. The nearest neighbours, based on 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity values (indicated in parentheses), were Chryseobacterium flavum KCTC 12877T (98.42 %), Chryseobacterium indologenesLMG 8337T (98.24 %) and Chryseobacterium gleum ATCC 35910T (97.71 %). Genome sequencing revealed a genome size of 4 796 535 bp and a DNA G+C content of 38.6 mol%. The ANI values of strain 7_F195T compared to C. flavum, C. indologenesand C. gleum were 81.45, 81.86 and 82.38 %, respectively. The digital DNA-DNA hybridization values for strain 7_F195T with C. flavum, C. indologenes and C. gleum were 23.7, 23.7 and 24.9 %, respectively. Notable phenotypic differences include the presence of urease activity in C. indologenes LMG 8337T and C. gleum NCTC 11432T, but not in strain 7_F195T or C. flavum KCTC 12877T. The predominant fatty acids of strain 7_F195T were iso-C15 : 0, iso-C17 : 1ω9c and iso-C17 : 0 3-OH and the most abundant polar lipid was phosphatidylethanolamine. Menaquinone-6 was the only respiratory quinone. Based on the data generated from this polyphasic study, strain 7_F195T represents a novel Chryseobacterium species for which the name Chryseobacteriumpennipullorum sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is 7_F195T (=LMG 30781T=KCTC 62760T).

Genomic Features, Comparative Genomic Analysis, and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Patterns of Chryseobacterium arthrosphaerae Strain ED882-96 Isolated in Taiwan.

Bacteria belonging to the genus Chryseobacterium are ubiquitously distributed in natural environments, plants, and animals. Except C. indologenes and C. gleum, other Chryseobacterium species rarely cause human diseases. This study reported the whole-genome features, comparative genomic analysis, and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of C. arthrosphaerae ED882-96 isolated in Taiwan. Strain ED882-96 was collected from the blood of a patient who had alcoholic liver cirrhosis and was an intravenous drug abuser. This isolate was initially identified as C. indologenes by using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry. The analysis of 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequence revealed that ED882-96 shared 100% sequence identity with C. arthrosphaerae type strain CC-VM-7T. The results of whole-genome sequencing of ED882-96 showed two chromosome contigs and one plasmid. The total lengths of the draft genomes of chromosome and plasmid were 4,249,864 bp and 435,667 bp, respectively. The findings of both in silico DNA-DNA hybridization and average nucleotide identity analyses clearly demonstrated that strain ED882-96 was a species of C. arthrosphaerae. A total of 83 potential virulence factor homologs were predicted in the whole-genome sequencing of strain ED882-96. This isolate was resistant to all tested antibiotics, including ß-lactams, ß-lactam/ß-lactamase inhibitor combinations, aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones, tetracycline, glycylcycline, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Only one antibiotic resistance gene was recognized in the plasmid. By contrast, many antibiotic resistance genes were identified in the chromosome. The findings of this study suggest that strain ED882-96 is a highly virulent and multidrug-resistant pathogen. Knowledge regarding genomic characteristics and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns provides valuable insights into this uncommon species.

Chryseobacterium aureum sp. nov., isolated from the Han River, Republic of Korea.

A Gram-stain-negative, yellow-pigmented, non-motile, non-spore-forming, aerobic and rod-shaped bacterial strain, designated 17S1E7T, was isolated from the Han River, Republic of Korea, and characterized by polyphasic taxonomy analyses. Strain 17S1E7T grew optimally on tryptic soy agar at 37 °C and pH 7.0 in the absence of NaCl. Phylogenetic analysis based on the 16S rRNA gene sequence indicated that strain 17S1E7T belonged to the genus Chryseobacterium and was most closely related to Chryseobacterium culicis DSM 23031T (98.54 %). The average nucleotide identity value of strain 17S1E7T was 91.1 % to Chryseobacterium culicis DSM 23031T, which was lower than the cut-off of 95-96 %. The DNA G+C content of strain 17S1E7T was 37.4 mol%. Flexirubin-type pigments were produced. The predominant respiratory quinone was menaquinone 6. The major fatty acids of strain 17S1E7T were iso-C15 : 0, summed feature 9 (iso-C17 : 1ω9c and/or C16 : 0 10-methyl), iso-C17 : 0 3-OH and summed feature 3 (iso-C15 : 0 2-OH and/or C16 : 1ω7c). The predominant polar lipid was phosphatidylethanolamine. Based on polyphasic taxonomy data, strain 17S1E7T represents a novel species of the genus Chryseobacterium, for which the name Chryseobacterium aureum sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is 17S1E7T (=KACC 19920T=JCM 33165T).

Chryseobacterium phosphatilyticum sp. nov., a phosphate-solubilizing endophyte isolated from cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) root.

A bacterial strain, designated as ISE14T, with Gram-stain-negative and non-motile rod-shaped cells, was isolated from the root of a cucumber plant collected in a field in Iksan, Republic of Korea and was characterized using a polyphasic approach. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences showed that strain ISE14T represented a member of the genus Chryseobacterium and was closely related to Chryseobacterium viscerum 687B-08T (16S rRNA gene sequence similarity of 98.50 %), Chryseobacterium lactis NCTC 11390T (98.49 %), Chryseobacterium ureilyticum F-Fue-04IIIaaaaT (98.49 %) and Chryseobacterium oncorhynchi 701B-08T (98.04 %). Average nucleotide identity values between genome sequences of strain ISE14T and the closely related species ranged from 81.44 to 83.15 %, which were lower than the threshold of 95 % (corresponding to a DNA-DNA hybridization value of 70 %). The DNA G+C content of strain ISE14T was 36.3 mol%. The dominant fatty acids were iso-C15 : 0, summed feature 9 (iso-C17 : 1ω9c and/or C16 : 0 10-methyl), summed feature 3 (iso-C15 : 0 2-OH and/or C16 : 1ω7c) and iso-C17 : 0 3-OH. The major polar lipids were phosphatidylethanolamine, three unidentified aminolipids and eight unidentified lipids; the predominant respiratory quinone was MK-6. On the basis of the evidence presented in this study, strain ISE14T can be distinguished from closely related species belonging to the genus Chryseobacterium. Thus, strain ISE14T is a novel species of the genus Chryseobacterium, for which the name Chryseobacteriumphosphatilyticum sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is ISE14T (=KACC 19820T=JCM 32876T).